| Chapter Eighteen of Pax Americana: The Military Industrial Complex and the War On Terror by Danny Quintana |
| American Exploration and Protection of the Oceans |
Although the political will to venture forth where man has not gone before is just not there in Washington, it exists in our universities and
private foundations and among individuals. Even without government help exploration of the oceans and the inner solar system will happen.
According to Dr. Marcia McNutt,
private foundations and among individuals. Even without government help exploration of the oceans and the inner solar system will happen.
According to Dr. Marcia McNutt,
There are no major defense contractors with campaign contributions pushing congress to build ships for exploration of the oceans. The only
motivation for a push in this area is the curiosity that makes humans adventure forth into the unknown. The fact that current members of
Congress do not have a sense of curiosity will mean that this important activity will not receive proper funding under the present
administration. The debate will continue to be on funding the Iraq war or some other proposal to feed the ever hungry war machine we call
this economy.
The Clinton Administration was interested in ocean exploration. President Clinton started an ocean exploration initiative that was far- reaching
in it’s scope and understood the nature of the challenge our nation. That imitative is as follows:
motivation for a push in this area is the curiosity that makes humans adventure forth into the unknown. The fact that current members of
Congress do not have a sense of curiosity will mean that this important activity will not receive proper funding under the present
administration. The debate will continue to be on funding the Iraq war or some other proposal to feed the ever hungry war machine we call
this economy.
The Clinton Administration was interested in ocean exploration. President Clinton started an ocean exploration initiative that was far- reaching
in it’s scope and understood the nature of the challenge our nation. That imitative is as follows:
What resulted from this initiative was a commission on the oceans that has produced some reports and a national commitment to pursue this
area of exploration. However, that presidential initiative was short lived. The top priority of the Bush administration was removing Saddam
Hussein from power. Ocean and space exploration are not on the front burner. The short term horizon of military intervention is far different
from the patience required for human exploration of the oceans and space. And, there are no powerful lobbies in Washington pushing for
expanding the economy by increasing spending on space and ocean exploration.
Exploration of the oceans and enforcing international laws protecting these vast regions is important for all of mankind. The threats to our
oceans are real and they come from humans. According to the Peter Benchley and Judith Gradwohl. 3*
area of exploration. However, that presidential initiative was short lived. The top priority of the Bush administration was removing Saddam
Hussein from power. Ocean and space exploration are not on the front burner. The short term horizon of military intervention is far different
from the patience required for human exploration of the oceans and space. And, there are no powerful lobbies in Washington pushing for
expanding the economy by increasing spending on space and ocean exploration.
Exploration of the oceans and enforcing international laws protecting these vast regions is important for all of mankind. The threats to our
oceans are real and they come from humans. According to the Peter Benchley and Judith Gradwohl. 3*
“The only agency that currently has a program in ocean exploration is NOAA.
Funding for 2002 was $14M. The ocean research budget is about $600M,
but that is research, not exploration. You could have a wonderful program
for$75-$150 million per year for operating costs, exclusive of the initial
capital investment. The capital investment would need to be of the order to
$300-500M for a state-of-the-art ship, submersibles, AUVs, sensors, and a
data management system.”1
Funding for 2002 was $14M. The ocean research budget is about $600M,
but that is research, not exploration. You could have a wonderful program
for$75-$150 million per year for operating costs, exclusive of the initial
capital investment. The capital investment would need to be of the order to
$300-500M for a state-of-the-art ship, submersibles, AUVs, sensors, and a
data management system.”1
Currently there are several very good private foundations and universities that are actively pursuing ocean research and exploration. (see
related links, infra).5 The problems of the oceans are well documented. One of the major difficulties is a lack of international law enforcement
to solve these ecological and environmental problems of overfishing, destruction of coral reefs by cruise ships, ocean dumping and numerous
other polluting behaviors. In other words, there is no policeman therefore, no real meaningful law exists except at the coastal level with
national enforcement. Even at the coastal level many nations do not have the resources to do actual enforcement of international agreements
NEW MISSION FOR THE NAVY AND NAVY DEFENSE CONTRACTORS
This is where the US Navy can provide a tremendous service for all of mankind. By working with other nations and the United Nations we can
have protection of the oceans. Only with law will there be peace. In this century we will not need 10 super Nimitz aircraft carrier battle groups
to fight the Soviet Union on two continents. The threats to world peace are from international killers. Criminals like Bin Laden cannot be
deterred with these amazing weapons systems. But enforcement of international agreements on the oceans is in all of our best interest.
Research and the Internet has made possible shared knowledge of the global problems and proposed solutions in many areas. The oceans
present a unique opportunity for global cooperation. By working together we have accumulated data where the dispute is not over the facts
but the proposed solutions. The scientists and researchers at Ocean 98 have provided the following information:
related links, infra).5 The problems of the oceans are well documented. One of the major difficulties is a lack of international law enforcement
to solve these ecological and environmental problems of overfishing, destruction of coral reefs by cruise ships, ocean dumping and numerous
other polluting behaviors. In other words, there is no policeman therefore, no real meaningful law exists except at the coastal level with
national enforcement. Even at the coastal level many nations do not have the resources to do actual enforcement of international agreements
NEW MISSION FOR THE NAVY AND NAVY DEFENSE CONTRACTORS
This is where the US Navy can provide a tremendous service for all of mankind. By working with other nations and the United Nations we can
have protection of the oceans. Only with law will there be peace. In this century we will not need 10 super Nimitz aircraft carrier battle groups
to fight the Soviet Union on two continents. The threats to world peace are from international killers. Criminals like Bin Laden cannot be
deterred with these amazing weapons systems. But enforcement of international agreements on the oceans is in all of our best interest.
Research and the Internet has made possible shared knowledge of the global problems and proposed solutions in many areas. The oceans
present a unique opportunity for global cooperation. By working together we have accumulated data where the dispute is not over the facts
but the proposed solutions. The scientists and researchers at Ocean 98 have provided the following information:
 | |  | |  |
Office of the Press Secretary
June 12, 2000
MEMORANDUM FOR THE SECRETARY OF COMMERCE
SUBJECT: A NEW ERA OF OCEAN EXPLORATION
Two years ago, the Vice President and I joined you, other members of my Cabinet, and hundreds of others from across
the country at the National Ocean Conference in Monterey. This historic gathering drew together for the first time
representatives from government, industry, and the scientific and conservation communities to begin charting a
common oceans agenda for the 21st century.
At the Conference, I directed my Cabinet to report back with recommendations for a coordinated, disciplined, long-term
Federal ocean policy. In its report to me last year. Turning to the Sea: America's Ocean Future, the Cabinet outlined an
ambitious and detailed strategy to ensure the protection and sustainable use of our ocean resources.I am proud of the
actions my Administration is taking to begin implementing this strategy, including the Executive Order I issued last month
to strengthen our national network of marine protected areas.
One of the Cabinet's key recommendations was that the Federal Government establish a national strategy to expand
exploration of the oceans. Although we have learned more about our oceans in the past 25 years than during any other
period in history, over 95 percent of the underwater world is still unknown and unseen. What remains to be explored
may hold clues to the origins of life on Earth, cures for human diseases, answers to how to achieve sustainable use of
our oceans, links to our maritime history, and information to protect the endangered species of the sea. (emphasis
added).
Today, I am announcing steps to immediately enhance our ocean exploration efforts and to develop the long-term
exploration strategy recommended by you and the rest of the Cabinet. Together, these actions represent the start of a
new era of ocean exploration. First, I am announcing the launch of three new expeditions off the Atlantic, Gulf, and
Pacific coasts. As you know, these expeditions, led by the Department of Commerce in collaboration with private
partners, will allow the first detailed exploration of the Hudson River Canyon off New York, the Middle Grounds and Big
Bend areas off central Florida, and the Davidson Seamount off central California. Researchers will employ the latest
submersible technologies and will share their discoveries with schoolchildren and the public via the Internet and satellite
communications.
Second, to ensure that these new expeditions are only the start of a new era of ocean exploration, I am directing you to
convene a panel of leading ocean explorers, educators, and scientists and to report back to me within 120 days with
recommendations for a national oceans exploration strategy. In implementing this directive, you shall consult with the
National Science Foundation, the National Atmospheric and Space Administration, the Department of the Interior, the
Environmental Protection Agency, and other agencies, as appropriate. The strategy should consider the full array of
benefits that our oceans provide, and should support our efforts to conserve and ensure the sustainable use of
valuable ocean resources. Specifically, the strategy should:
1. Define objectives and priorities to guide ocean exploration, including the identification of key sites of scientific,
historic, and cultural importance;
2. Recommend ways of creating new partnerships to draw on the tools and talents of educational, research,
private-sector, and government organizations, including opportunities for Federal agencies to provide in-kind support
for private ocean exploration initiatives;
3. Examine the potential for new technologies -- including manned and unmanned vehicles and undersea platforms -- to
observe and explore the oceans from surface to seafloor and recommend ways to explore the oceans remotely using
new observatories and sensors and other innovative uses of technology; and
4. Recommend mechanisms to ensure that information about newly explored areas warranting additional protection is
referred to the newly established Marine Protected Area Center, and that newly discovered organisms or other
resources with medicinal or commercial potential are identified for possible research and development.
In the early years of the 19th century, President Thomas Jefferson commissioned Captain Meriwether Lewis to explore
the American West. What followed was the most important exploration in this country's history. As America prepares to
celebrate the 200th anniversary of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, we have an opportunity to set our sights on a much
broader horizon. The time has come to take exploration farther west, and east, and south, to our submerged continents.
In so doing, we can challenge and rekindle American's spirit of exploration, open up a whole new underwater world of
possibilities, and help preserve our extraordinary marine heritage for future generations.
WILLIAM J. CLINTON 2
June 12, 2000
MEMORANDUM FOR THE SECRETARY OF COMMERCE
SUBJECT: A NEW ERA OF OCEAN EXPLORATION
Two years ago, the Vice President and I joined you, other members of my Cabinet, and hundreds of others from across
the country at the National Ocean Conference in Monterey. This historic gathering drew together for the first time
representatives from government, industry, and the scientific and conservation communities to begin charting a
common oceans agenda for the 21st century.
At the Conference, I directed my Cabinet to report back with recommendations for a coordinated, disciplined, long-term
Federal ocean policy. In its report to me last year. Turning to the Sea: America's Ocean Future, the Cabinet outlined an
ambitious and detailed strategy to ensure the protection and sustainable use of our ocean resources.I am proud of the
actions my Administration is taking to begin implementing this strategy, including the Executive Order I issued last month
to strengthen our national network of marine protected areas.
One of the Cabinet's key recommendations was that the Federal Government establish a national strategy to expand
exploration of the oceans. Although we have learned more about our oceans in the past 25 years than during any other
period in history, over 95 percent of the underwater world is still unknown and unseen. What remains to be explored
may hold clues to the origins of life on Earth, cures for human diseases, answers to how to achieve sustainable use of
our oceans, links to our maritime history, and information to protect the endangered species of the sea. (emphasis
added).
Today, I am announcing steps to immediately enhance our ocean exploration efforts and to develop the long-term
exploration strategy recommended by you and the rest of the Cabinet. Together, these actions represent the start of a
new era of ocean exploration. First, I am announcing the launch of three new expeditions off the Atlantic, Gulf, and
Pacific coasts. As you know, these expeditions, led by the Department of Commerce in collaboration with private
partners, will allow the first detailed exploration of the Hudson River Canyon off New York, the Middle Grounds and Big
Bend areas off central Florida, and the Davidson Seamount off central California. Researchers will employ the latest
submersible technologies and will share their discoveries with schoolchildren and the public via the Internet and satellite
communications.
Second, to ensure that these new expeditions are only the start of a new era of ocean exploration, I am directing you to
convene a panel of leading ocean explorers, educators, and scientists and to report back to me within 120 days with
recommendations for a national oceans exploration strategy. In implementing this directive, you shall consult with the
National Science Foundation, the National Atmospheric and Space Administration, the Department of the Interior, the
Environmental Protection Agency, and other agencies, as appropriate. The strategy should consider the full array of
benefits that our oceans provide, and should support our efforts to conserve and ensure the sustainable use of
valuable ocean resources. Specifically, the strategy should:
1. Define objectives and priorities to guide ocean exploration, including the identification of key sites of scientific,
historic, and cultural importance;
2. Recommend ways of creating new partnerships to draw on the tools and talents of educational, research,
private-sector, and government organizations, including opportunities for Federal agencies to provide in-kind support
for private ocean exploration initiatives;
3. Examine the potential for new technologies -- including manned and unmanned vehicles and undersea platforms -- to
observe and explore the oceans from surface to seafloor and recommend ways to explore the oceans remotely using
new observatories and sensors and other innovative uses of technology; and
4. Recommend mechanisms to ensure that information about newly explored areas warranting additional protection is
referred to the newly established Marine Protected Area Center, and that newly discovered organisms or other
resources with medicinal or commercial potential are identified for possible research and development.
In the early years of the 19th century, President Thomas Jefferson commissioned Captain Meriwether Lewis to explore
the American West. What followed was the most important exploration in this country's history. As America prepares to
celebrate the 200th anniversary of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, we have an opportunity to set our sights on a much
broader horizon. The time has come to take exploration farther west, and east, and south, to our submerged continents.
In so doing, we can challenge and rekindle American's spirit of exploration, open up a whole new underwater world of
possibilities, and help preserve our extraordinary marine heritage for future generations.
WILLIAM J. CLINTON 2
• Oil spills account for only about five percent of the oil entering the
oceans. The Coast Guard estimates that for United States waters sewage
treatment plants discharge twice as much oil each year as tanker spills.
oceans. The Coast Guard estimates that for United States waters sewage
treatment plants discharge twice as much oil each year as tanker spills.
• Each year industrial, household cleaning, gardening, and automotive
products pollute water. About 65,000 chemicals are used commercially in
the United States today, with about 1,000 new ones added each year. Only
about 300 have been extensively tested for toxicity.
products pollute water. About 65,000 chemicals are used commercially in
the United States today, with about 1,000 new ones added each year. Only
about 300 have been extensively tested for toxicity.
• It is estimated that medical waste that washed up onto Long Island and
New Jersey beaches in the summer of 1988 cost as much as $3 billion in lost
revenue from tourism and recreation.
• The most frequently found item in beach cleanups is pieces of plastic.
The next four items are plastic foam, plastic utensils, pieces of glass and
cigarette butts.
New Jersey beaches in the summer of 1988 cost as much as $3 billion in lost
revenue from tourism and recreation.
• The most frequently found item in beach cleanups is pieces of plastic.
The next four items are plastic foam, plastic utensils, pieces of glass and
cigarette butts.
• Lost or discarded fishing nets keep on fishing. Called "ghost nets," this
gear entangles fish, marine mammals, and sea birds, preventing them from
feeding or causing them to drown. As many as 20,000 northern fur seals
may die each year from becoming entangled in netting.
• Air pollution is responsible for almost one-third of the toxic contaminants
and nutrients that enter coastal areas and oceans.
• When nitrogen and phosphorus from sources such as fertilizer, sewage
and detergents enter coastal waters, oxygen depletion occurs. One gram of
nitrogen can make enough organic material to require 15 grams of oxygen
to decompose. A single gram of phosphorus will deplete one hundred grams
of oxygen.
• The Mississippi River drains more than 40 percent of the continental
United States, carrying excess nutrients into the Gulf of Mexico. Decay of the
resulting algal blooms consumes oxygen, kills shellfish and displaces fish in
a 4,000 square mile bottom area off the coast of Louisiana and Texas,
called the "dead zone."
gear entangles fish, marine mammals, and sea birds, preventing them from
feeding or causing them to drown. As many as 20,000 northern fur seals
may die each year from becoming entangled in netting.
• Air pollution is responsible for almost one-third of the toxic contaminants
and nutrients that enter coastal areas and oceans.
• When nitrogen and phosphorus from sources such as fertilizer, sewage
and detergents enter coastal waters, oxygen depletion occurs. One gram of
nitrogen can make enough organic material to require 15 grams of oxygen
to decompose. A single gram of phosphorus will deplete one hundred grams
of oxygen.
• The Mississippi River drains more than 40 percent of the continental
United States, carrying excess nutrients into the Gulf of Mexico. Decay of the
resulting algal blooms consumes oxygen, kills shellfish and displaces fish in
a 4,000 square mile bottom area off the coast of Louisiana and Texas,
called the "dead zone."
• In 1993, United States beaches were closed or swimmers advised not to
get in the water over 2,400 times because of sewage contamination. The
problem is even worse than the numbers indicate: there are no federal
requirements for notifying the public when water-quality standards are
violated, and some coastal states don't monitor water at beaches.
• The zebra mussel is the most famous unwanted ship stowaway, but the
animals and plants being transported to new areas through ship ballast
water is a problem around the world. Poisonous algae, cholera, and
countless plants and animals have invaded harbor waters and disrupted
ecological balance.
• There are 109 countries with coral reefs. Reefs in 90 of them are being
damaged by cruise ship anchors and sewage, by tourists breaking off
chunks of coral, and by commercial harvesting for sale to tourists.
get in the water over 2,400 times because of sewage contamination. The
problem is even worse than the numbers indicate: there are no federal
requirements for notifying the public when water-quality standards are
violated, and some coastal states don't monitor water at beaches.
• The zebra mussel is the most famous unwanted ship stowaway, but the
animals and plants being transported to new areas through ship ballast
water is a problem around the world. Poisonous algae, cholera, and
countless plants and animals have invaded harbor waters and disrupted
ecological balance.
• There are 109 countries with coral reefs. Reefs in 90 of them are being
damaged by cruise ship anchors and sewage, by tourists breaking off
chunks of coral, and by commercial harvesting for sale to tourists.
• One study of a cruise ship anchor dropped in a coral reef for one day
found an area about half the size of a football field completely destroyed,
and half again as much covered by rubble that died later. It was estimated
that coral recovery would take fifty years.
• Egypt's High Aswan Dam, built in the 1960s to provide electricity and
irrigation water, diverts up to 95 percent of the Nile River's normal flow. It
has since trapped more than one million tons of nutrient rich silt and caused
a sharp decline in Mediterranean sardine and shrimp fisheries.
• The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization estimates that of
the seventeen major fisheries areas in the world, four are depleted and the
other thirteen are either fished to capacity or overfished.
• Commercial marine fisheries in the United States discard up to 20 billion
pounds of non-target fish each year-- twice the catch of desired commercial
and recreational fishing combined.
• Almost half of all construction in the United States during the 1970s and
1980s took place in coastal areas.
• Within thirty years a billion more people will be living along the coasts
than are alive today.
• With only 4.3 percent of the world population, Americans. We use about
one-third of the world's processed mineral resources, and about one-fourth
of the world's non-renewable energy sources, like oil and coal. 4
found an area about half the size of a football field completely destroyed,
and half again as much covered by rubble that died later. It was estimated
that coral recovery would take fifty years.
• Egypt's High Aswan Dam, built in the 1960s to provide electricity and
irrigation water, diverts up to 95 percent of the Nile River's normal flow. It
has since trapped more than one million tons of nutrient rich silt and caused
a sharp decline in Mediterranean sardine and shrimp fisheries.
• The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization estimates that of
the seventeen major fisheries areas in the world, four are depleted and the
other thirteen are either fished to capacity or overfished.
• Commercial marine fisheries in the United States discard up to 20 billion
pounds of non-target fish each year-- twice the catch of desired commercial
and recreational fishing combined.
• Almost half of all construction in the United States during the 1970s and
1980s took place in coastal areas.
• Within thirty years a billion more people will be living along the coasts
than are alive today.
• With only 4.3 percent of the world population, Americans. We use about
one-third of the world's processed mineral resources, and about one-fourth
of the world's non-renewable energy sources, like oil and coal. 4
362,000,000 km2 (!!!) or 71% of the surface of the globe is water. The
oceans influence all life on earth. We actually know relatively little about the
oceans. The Earth exists 4,500,000,000 years; modern technology less than
100 years. In our times, political and commercial decisions are made, which
can destroy developments of billions of years, in just days, hours and
minutes. Some may think that changes in one drop of water don't change
the 1,300,000,000 km3 of water on earth. A human being also consists of
billions of cells; the change in just one cell, may be the beginning of a
terminal illness.
oceans influence all life on earth. We actually know relatively little about the
oceans. The Earth exists 4,500,000,000 years; modern technology less than
100 years. In our times, political and commercial decisions are made, which
can destroy developments of billions of years, in just days, hours and
minutes. Some may think that changes in one drop of water don't change
the 1,300,000,000 km3 of water on earth. A human being also consists of
billions of cells; the change in just one cell, may be the beginning of a
terminal illness.
People must be informed about the oceans because protection starts with awareness!
COASTAL ISSUES
Coastline - The total length of the world's coastlines is about 504,000 km, enough to circle the Equator 12 times. The apparent length of a
coastline depends on the scale (length of ruler) at which it is measured. The coastline appears longer as shorter rulers are used, because
more small features are included. Canada has the longest coastline of any country. The 1996 Canadian Encyclopedia gives the length as
243,797 km, including the major island coastlines while the 1997 Guiness Book of Records gives a figure of 244,800 km, including the
islands. Erosion - As coastal zones become more and more crowded, the quality of coastal water will suffer, the wildlife will be displaced, and
the shorelines will erode. 60% of the Pacific and 35% of the Atlantic Coast shoreline are eroding at a rate of a meter every year.Population -
More than half the world’s population live within a 100 km or 60 miles distance from the coast. This is more than 2.7 billion people. Rapid
urbanization will lead to more coastal megacities containing 10 million or more people. By the end of the millennium 13 out of 15 of the world’s
largest cities will be located on or near the coast. Growing population in coastal areas leads to more marine pollution and distribution of
coastal habitats. Some 6,5 million tons (6,500,000,000 kilo) of litter finds its way into the sea each year.(Close to one-half of all Americans live
in coastal counties).
COASTAL ISSUES
Coastline - The total length of the world's coastlines is about 504,000 km, enough to circle the Equator 12 times. The apparent length of a
coastline depends on the scale (length of ruler) at which it is measured. The coastline appears longer as shorter rulers are used, because
more small features are included. Canada has the longest coastline of any country. The 1996 Canadian Encyclopedia gives the length as
243,797 km, including the major island coastlines while the 1997 Guiness Book of Records gives a figure of 244,800 km, including the
islands. Erosion - As coastal zones become more and more crowded, the quality of coastal water will suffer, the wildlife will be displaced, and
the shorelines will erode. 60% of the Pacific and 35% of the Atlantic Coast shoreline are eroding at a rate of a meter every year.Population -
More than half the world’s population live within a 100 km or 60 miles distance from the coast. This is more than 2.7 billion people. Rapid
urbanization will lead to more coastal megacities containing 10 million or more people. By the end of the millennium 13 out of 15 of the world’s
largest cities will be located on or near the coast. Growing population in coastal areas leads to more marine pollution and distribution of
coastal habitats. Some 6,5 million tons (6,500,000,000 kilo) of litter finds its way into the sea each year.(Close to one-half of all Americans live
in coastal counties).
LIFE IN THE OCEANS
Ocean life - 80% of all life on earth is found under the ocean surface Algae - The first plants on earth, the algae,developed in the sea 3.5
million years ago. Algae, like other plants, give off oxygen as they produce food. In time, these algae have produced enough oxygen to
fastest growing plants in the world. In warm water, they can grow up to two feet in one day. Seaweed Substances out of seaweed are used
in photographic film, cotton thread, medicines, paint, face creams, soup and ice cream. Habitat - The oceans contain 95% of the habitat
space on the planet. Creatures, large and small - The number of ocean species known to man are 275,000. The largest animal and marine
mammal in the world is the blue whale. It's up to 33 meters long and weighs as much as 40 rhinoceroses put together. The tiniest sea
creatures are the microscopic plankton. They form the basis of the ocean food web on which all higher animals depend.- Some fish are very
long-lived. For example, the age on one specimen of Rougheye Rockfish, from the Pacific Coast of Canada, was estimated at over
147 years.
Cod - A female cod can lay 4,000,000 eggs in a year. Electric Eel-The electric eel (which isn't a "true eel") discharges 350 volts on average
and up to 650 volts total. However, brief discharges of 500 volts at 2 amperes have been measured, which produced 100 watts of energy.
Voltage continues to increase in eels up to 3 feet in length, after which as their length increases only the amperage increases. Electric eels in
South America can reach lengths of up to 10 feet. In addition, there are at least 500 kinds of fish that produce noticeable amounts of
electricityShark--The largest fish in the world is the whale shark, which lives in warm waters and feeds on plankton. The largest one measured
was 12 m long, and was estimated to weigh 10,000 kg--The basking shark is the second largest fish, and has been hunted commercially for
the oil from its liver. A single adult can yield up to 900 liters of oil-- Megalodon, a shark which lived in the time of the dinosaurs, was bigger
and heavier than Tyrannosaurus Rex Seahorses--The 35 species of seahorse or hippocampus vary in size from 1" to 14". Their main food is
shrimp and other Crustaceans. They have a life span of about one year. The seahorse changes its color for reasons of safety (camouflage)
as well as expressing emotions to other seahorses. The female hippocampus can lay about 200 eggs and the male carries the eggs until they
hatch. Roughly 20 million live and dead seahorses were traded legally in 1993. They are primarily used for medicines and aphrodisiacs (in
Asia), aquariums and food. Tuna - Tuna are among the fastest swimming fish in the ocean. An adult bluefin tuna can swim up to 55 miles per
hour. - The bluefin tuna are among the largest marine fish. An adult may weigh up to 1,500 pounds. Prized for sushi in Japan, bluefins can
bring as much as $20,000 each at U.S. docks. Food--Photosynthesis is not the only way new food is produced in the ocean. Bacteria living
near hydrothermal vents in the deep ocean and oil and gas seeps along the continental margins in the deep can fix carbon from carbon
dioxide into nutritious molecules using the chemical energy in hydrogen sulfide or methane.
Ocean life - 80% of all life on earth is found under the ocean surface Algae - The first plants on earth, the algae,developed in the sea 3.5
million years ago. Algae, like other plants, give off oxygen as they produce food. In time, these algae have produced enough oxygen to
fastest growing plants in the world. In warm water, they can grow up to two feet in one day. Seaweed Substances out of seaweed are used
in photographic film, cotton thread, medicines, paint, face creams, soup and ice cream. Habitat - The oceans contain 95% of the habitat
space on the planet. Creatures, large and small - The number of ocean species known to man are 275,000. The largest animal and marine
mammal in the world is the blue whale. It's up to 33 meters long and weighs as much as 40 rhinoceroses put together. The tiniest sea
creatures are the microscopic plankton. They form the basis of the ocean food web on which all higher animals depend.- Some fish are very
long-lived. For example, the age on one specimen of Rougheye Rockfish, from the Pacific Coast of Canada, was estimated at over
147 years.
Cod - A female cod can lay 4,000,000 eggs in a year. Electric Eel-The electric eel (which isn't a "true eel") discharges 350 volts on average
and up to 650 volts total. However, brief discharges of 500 volts at 2 amperes have been measured, which produced 100 watts of energy.
Voltage continues to increase in eels up to 3 feet in length, after which as their length increases only the amperage increases. Electric eels in
South America can reach lengths of up to 10 feet. In addition, there are at least 500 kinds of fish that produce noticeable amounts of
electricityShark--The largest fish in the world is the whale shark, which lives in warm waters and feeds on plankton. The largest one measured
was 12 m long, and was estimated to weigh 10,000 kg--The basking shark is the second largest fish, and has been hunted commercially for
the oil from its liver. A single adult can yield up to 900 liters of oil-- Megalodon, a shark which lived in the time of the dinosaurs, was bigger
and heavier than Tyrannosaurus Rex Seahorses--The 35 species of seahorse or hippocampus vary in size from 1" to 14". Their main food is
shrimp and other Crustaceans. They have a life span of about one year. The seahorse changes its color for reasons of safety (camouflage)
as well as expressing emotions to other seahorses. The female hippocampus can lay about 200 eggs and the male carries the eggs until they
hatch. Roughly 20 million live and dead seahorses were traded legally in 1993. They are primarily used for medicines and aphrodisiacs (in
Asia), aquariums and food. Tuna - Tuna are among the fastest swimming fish in the ocean. An adult bluefin tuna can swim up to 55 miles per
hour. - The bluefin tuna are among the largest marine fish. An adult may weigh up to 1,500 pounds. Prized for sushi in Japan, bluefins can
bring as much as $20,000 each at U.S. docks. Food--Photosynthesis is not the only way new food is produced in the ocean. Bacteria living
near hydrothermal vents in the deep ocean and oil and gas seeps along the continental margins in the deep can fix carbon from carbon
dioxide into nutritious molecules using the chemical energy in hydrogen sulfide or methane.
Production - The sea provides the biggest source of wild or domestic
protein in the world. Each year some 70 to 75 million tonnes of fish
are caught in the ocean. Of this amount around 29 million tonnes is for
human consumption. The global fish production exceeds that of cattle,
sheep, poultry or eggs. Fish can be produced in two ways: by capture and
by aqua culture. The total production has grown 34% over the last decade.
-The largest numbers of fish are located in the Southern Hemisphere due
to the fact that these waters are not largely exploited by man--Fifteen out of
seventeen of the world's largest fisheries are so heavily exploited that the
reproduction can't keep up. With the result that many fish populations are
decreasing rapidly. (emphasis added)- Species of fish endangered by
overfishing are tuna, salmon, haddock, halibut, and cod--In the 19th
century, codfish weighing up to 200 pounds used to be caught. Nowadays,
a 40 pound cod is considered a giant. Reason: overfishing
protein in the world. Each year some 70 to 75 million tonnes of fish
are caught in the ocean. Of this amount around 29 million tonnes is for
human consumption. The global fish production exceeds that of cattle,
sheep, poultry or eggs. Fish can be produced in two ways: by capture and
by aqua culture. The total production has grown 34% over the last decade.
-The largest numbers of fish are located in the Southern Hemisphere due
to the fact that these waters are not largely exploited by man--Fifteen out of
seventeen of the world's largest fisheries are so heavily exploited that the
reproduction can't keep up. With the result that many fish populations are
decreasing rapidly. (emphasis added)- Species of fish endangered by
overfishing are tuna, salmon, haddock, halibut, and cod--In the 19th
century, codfish weighing up to 200 pounds used to be caught. Nowadays,
a 40 pound cod is considered a giant. Reason: overfishing
- The blue whale is the largest animal that has ever lived.
- The sperm whale is the largest predator that has ever lived.
OCEAN WATERS
Acoustics: Sound travels five times faster in water than in air--In 1960, scientists set off depth charges off the coast of Australia. About 2-1/2
hours later it was heard under the water in Bermuda.Carolus effect - The rotation of the earth causes water to circle away from the equator. It
creates the major currents.
Currents: The Kuroshio Current, off the shores of Japan, is the largest current. It can travel between 25 and 75 miles a day, 1 - 3 miles per
hour, and extends some 3300 feet deep. The Gulf Stream is close to this current's speed.- The Gulf Stream is a well known stream of warm
water in the Atlantic Ocean. At a speed of 60 miles per day, the Gulf stream moves a 100 times as much water as all the rivers on earth.
Because the Gulf Stream is part of a larger current system, it is difficult to set boundaries of start and finish. Generally, the northeasterly flow
can be charted from the Straits of Florida, at a speed of 3 - 4 knots with a rate of 26 million cubic meters per second, increasing past the
Chesapeake Bay to a rate of 75 - 90 million cubic meters per second due to addition of waters from the Sargasso Sea, up to the Grand Banks
of Newfoundland where the rate drops to 40 million cubic meters per second.
Foam: Sea foam is made of air bubbles separated by a film of liquid. Air bubbles in fresh water unite, while air bubbles in salt water bounce
off of each other. When these air bubbles rise to the surface in the ocean, they burst and release salt spray into the air. It is believed that
most of the airborne salt comes from the bursting of bubbles.
Light: Blue is the longest wavelength of the colors of the spectrum. Since it is the last absorbed by the ocean, it is the most dominant color
reflected. When descending into the sea, the colors of the spectrum begin to be filtered out. The first color to disappear is red.
Ocean Depth: The average depth of the ocean is 3795 m. (The average height of the land is 840m). The Marianas Trench in the Pacific
Ocean is, with a depth of 11.7 km, the deepest spot on earth and deeper than the highest mountain is tall. At the deepest point in the ocean,
the pressure is more than 8 tons per square inch
- The Caribbean Sea is the deepest at 8,448 feet. Ocean productivity - The productivity for a given area of a natural shallow estuary is similar
to that of most productive land crops. Estuaries, sugarcane and sorghum all produce between 500 and 1250
grams of Carbon per square meter per year.
- The productivity for a given area of the open ocean is similar to that of deserts and grasslands on land, between 40 and 80 grams of
Carbon per square meter per year.
- A given area in an ocean upwelling zone or deep estuary is as productive as the same area in rain forests, moist crops and intensive
agriculture. They all produce between 150 and 500 grams of Carbon per square meter per year.
Rising Sea Level: The sea level has risen with an average of 4-10 inches (10 to 25 cm) over the past 100 years and scientists expect this
rate to increase. Sea levels will continue rising even if the climate has stabilized, because the ocean reacts slowly to changes.
- 10,000 years ago the ocean level was about 330 ft (110 mtr) lower than it is now.
- If all the world's ice melted, the oceans would rise 200 ft (66 mtr). Tides - The highest tides in the world are found in the Bay of Fundy, Nova
Scotia, Canada. At times during the year the difference between high and low tide may be as high as 53 feet, the equivalent of a three-story
building.
- Each year there are 26 spring tides: 13 at full moon and 13 when the moon is none. Volcanic Activity - 90% of all volcanic activity on Earth
occurs in the ocean. The largest known concentration of active volcanoes (approximately 1,133) on the sea floor is located in the South
PACIFIC OCEAN:
Water Masses: Over 70% of the earth's surface is covered with water. This is approximately 362,000,000 square kilometers. The oceans
contain 97% of all the water on earth, which is about 1,300,000,000 km3 or 328,000,000 miles 3. The amount of water on earth has never
changed andwill never change.
- The Pacific Ocean holds more than half the seawater on Earth - almost as much as the Atlantic and Indian Oceans combined.
- The South China Sea, located between the coasts of China and Philippines, is the largest sea on Earth. It has an area of 1,148,500 square
miles.
Salinity: Some scientists estimate that the oceans contain as much as 50 quadrillion tons (50 million billion tons=50,000,000,000,000,000) of
dissolved solids. If the salt in the ocean could be removed and spread evenly over the Earth’s land surface it would form a layer more than
500 feet (166 m) thick, about the height of a 40-story office building.
- The ocean's principal dissolved solids are sodium salts (sodium chloride or common salt), calcium salts (calcium carbonate or lime, and
calcium sulfate), potassium salts (potassium sulfate), and magnesium salts (magnesium chloride, magnesium sulfate, and magnesium
bromide).
- Atlantic sea water is heavier than Pacific sea water due to its higher salt content.
- The freezing point of sea water depends on its salt content. Typical ocean water has about 35 grams of salt per liter and freezes at -19
degrees C.
Density - The density of ocean water varies. It becomes more dense as it becomes colder, right down to its freezing point of -1.9 degrees C.
(This is unlike fresh water, which is most dense at 4 degrees C, well above its freezing point). Water temperature - Under the enormous
pressures of the deep ocean, sea water can reach very high temperatures without boiling. A water temperature of 400 degrees C has been
measured at one hydrothermal vent.
- The average temperature of all ocean water is about 3.5° C.
- Almost all of the deep ocean temperatures are only a little warmer than freezing (39°F). Waves - Waves are primarily created by the friction
between water and wind. They go forward without replacing any water. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and tides also cause waves.
- Ordinary ocean waves get their energy from the wind. Higher waves need more energy. 'Sea state' (the typical height of wind waves) is
determined by the wind speed, the lenght of time the wind has been blowing steadily (the 'duration), and the distance over the water that the
wind blows in a single direction (the 'fetch').
- Wind-generated ocean wavescontinue to travel after the wind stops. Longer waves travel faster than shorter ones, and go farther before
friction causes them to disappear. Groups of waves froM sortm in the Pacific near Antarctica have been detected in Hawaii and Alaska, more
than 10,000 km away.
- A Tsunami, can move as fast as 500 miles per hour. The largest recorded tsunami measured 210 feet above sea level, which is about 18
stories high. It reached Siberia's Kamchatka Peninsula in 1737.
- Seiche is a wave formed by the rocking of water in an enclosed water area such as a harbor or bay.
- Even underwater waves exist: between layers of water of different denseties.
- Kinetic energy, the energy of motion, in waves is tremendous. An average 4-foot, 10-second wave striking a coast puts out more than
35,000 horsepower per mile of coast. If this seems confusing, another way to determine how much power is contained in a wave can be best
visualized by looking at the damage it does when it hits the coast. For example, on the coast of Scotland a block of cemented stone weighing
1,350 tons was broken lose. Later, the replacement pier, weighing 2,600, tons was carried away by waves. Off the coast of Oregon, the roof
of a lighthouse 91 feet above water was damaged by a 135 pound rock that was carried by the high waves. Waterless Oceans The oceans
will completely disappear in about one billion years due to increased temperatures from a maturing sun. The problems begin in half that time
because of falling levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. As time progresses, the sun, like all main sequence stars, is getting brighter
and that affects the climate of our planet. Eventually temperatures will become high enough so that the oceans evaporate. At 140 degrees
Fahrenheit, water becomes a major constituent of the atmosphere. Much of this water migrates to the stratosphere where it is lost to the
vacuum. Eventually, the oceans will evaporate into space.
POLAR REGIONS
- Antarctica has as much ice as the Atlantic Ocean has water.
- 10% of the earth's surface is covered with ice.
- The Arctic Ocean is the smallest ocean, holding only one percent of the Earth's seawater. This is still more than 25 times as much water as
all rivers and fresh water lakes.
- The average thickness of the Arctic ice sheet is about 9 to 10 feet, although there are some areas as thick as 65 feet.
- In the unlikely event that all the polar ice were to melt, the sea level all over the world would rise 500 to 600 feet. As a result, 85 to 90% of
the Earth's surface would be covered with water as compared to the current 71%. The U.S. would be split by the Mississippi Sea, which would
connect the Great Lakes with the Gulf of Mexico.
- The Arctic produces 10,000 to 50,000 icebergs annually. The amount produced in the Antarctic regions is inestimable. Icebergs normally
have a four-year life-span; they begin entering shipping lanes after about three years.
POLLUTION
Pollutants: Sewage, pulpmill wastes, fertilizers, soaps, detergents, radioactive wastes, synthetic fibers, plastics, oils, tars, greases, and
insecticides are all pollutants man has placed in our Earth's oceans. Hot and cold water from factories and silt from dredging can also be
considered pollutants because they are abnormal to the surrounding water conditions.
Air Pollution: Air pollution is responsible for 33% of the toxic contaminants that end up in oceans and coastal waters. About 44% of the toxic
contaminants come from rivers and streams. Animal Deaths - In one year, over a 100 million sharks are killed, many solely for their fins. In one
year one million seabirds and 100,000 marine mammals and sea turtles suffer cruel deaths from entanglement or suffocation in plastics.
Annually, about 600 miles of commercial fishing nets break loose, float freely, become a curtain of death.
Carbon Dioxyde Absorbtion: Oceans absorb between 30% and 50% of the carbon dioxide produced by burning fossil fuel. Carbon dioxide
is transported downwards by plankton. Any change in the temperature of the ocean water, influences the ability of plankton to take up carbon
dioxide. This has consequences for the ecosystem, because plankton form the base of the food web. Reefs - Over 60% of the world's coral
reefs are threatened as a result of pollution, sedimentation and bleaching due to rising water temperatures caused by global warming. Global
Coral Monitoring Network (GCRMN) states that currently 27% of all coral reef worldwide has disappeared and around 2050 only 30% will be
left. Rubbish/Contamination- In one year, three times as much rubbish is dumped into the world's oceans as the weight of fish caught.
- A single quart of motor oil can contaminate up to 2 million gallons of drinking water.
Marine Salvage: In 1998, marine salvors recovered 986,116 tonnes of oil, 84,994 tonnes of hazardous chemicals, and 47,385 tonnes of
other pollutants. In the five year period from 1994-98, marine salvors recovered 6,956,922 tonnes of oil, 428,728 tonnes of hazardous
chemicals and 206,130 of other pollutants.
Oil spills: The Exxon Valdez ran aground off the coast of Alaska. 42,000 tons of oil were spilled. It was the worst tanker spill in U.S. history. In
terms of all time oil spills, it doesn't even rank among the top 20.
- Only about one tenth of one percent of oil shipped each year is spilled at sea. That amounts to 2,200,000 tons.
RESOURCES, MINERALS
Gold: If all the gold suspended in the world's seawater were mined, each person on Earth could have about 9 pounds of gold.
Oil: Oil is one of the ocean's greatest resources. nearly one-third of the world's oil comes from offshore fields in our oceans. Areas most
popular for oil drilling are the Arabian Gulf, the North Sea, and the Gulf of Mexico. Oil was also borne from the sea. Millions of years ago,
countless marine microsciopic plants (phytoplankton) and animals (zooplankton) lived in the ancient seas as they do today. As they died,
the skeletal remains of these tiny organisms settled to the sea floor, mixed with mud and silt, and over millions of years, formed organic-rich
sedimentary layers. Other sediments continued to be deposited and further buried the oganic-rich sediment layer to depths of thousands of
feet, compressing the layers into a rock that would become the source for oil. Over the years, as the depth of the burial increased, pressure
increased, along with the temperature. Under such conditions, and over long periods of time, the original skeletal remains of phytoplankton
and zooplankton changed, breaking down into simpler substances called hydrocarbons--compounds of hydrogen and carbon. This process
still continues, although it will be millions of years before the next batch of oil is done cooking.
TERRITORIAL WATERS, EEZ
EEZ: The EEZ refers to the coastal waters that lie adjacent to the coast and extend 200 nautical miles offshore. Marine resources within the
EEZ is governed by the adjacent country.
The 10 Largest Territorial Powers (in million sq kms)
Country Land Area Sea Claims Total Area
1. Australia 7,700,000 28,500,000 36,200,000
2. Russia 17,100,000 21,500,000 38,600,000
3. USA 9,400,000 20,000,000 29,400,000
4. Canada 9,900,000 12,400,000 22,300,000
5. China 9,600,000 11,400,000 21,000,000
6. Brazil 8,500,000 11,000,000 19,500,000
7. France 500,000 6,000,000 6,500,000
8. Indonesia 1,900,000 6,000,000 7,900,000
9. India 3,200,000 5,700,000 8,900,000
10. New Zealand 300,000 5,500,000 5,800,000
WATER (hydrogen)
Hydrogen: About 97% of the atoms in our universe are hydrogen: more than 50% of the atoms in our environment (the soil beneath our feet,
the atmosphere, the oceans) are hydrogen, most of it combined with oxygen as water. Desalination - Arabian Gulf reverse osmosis plants
treat 500,000,000 gallons of sea water to obtain 100,000,000 gallons of fresh water. Daily over 500,000,000 gallons of Seawater must be
heated to extremely high temperatures. Mixed with toxic chemicals the Seawater is injected under high pressure through a series of
membrane filters. Only 100,000,000 gallons of fresh water is generated. The 5:1 ratio of this highly inefficient process means 400,000,000
gallons of untreated water are returned to the sea each day. The higher temperature of the discharged water causes environmental
problems. Worse, the super heated brine discharge has significantly higher levels of total dissolved solids, and toxic chemicals are mixed in
with it. This pollution is usually discharged back into the sea. 6
Clearly we have an immense job in protecting the oceans in this century for future generations. However, our navy, which is the finest in
history is up for this task. We are the only nation with the ability to bring law to the oceans of the entire planet. It also gives our navy a mission
of global scope and a moral certainty which people will be hard pressed to object. Each year over one million sea birds and over 100,000
marine mammals and sea turtles suffer cruel deaths from entanglement on fish nets or suffocation in plastics.
The problem with our navy presently is the mission of protecting America from communism has been achieved. Al Qaeda does not pose a
naval threat to the "infidels". Thus a new and more important mission of global scope is required. And that mission is to protect the oceans for
all of mankind. We are the only nation that has the ability to enforce existing international agreements. Our navy can defeat all of the navies
in the world combined in combat. But we are not fighting the entire world. Pollution and polluters are enemies of all mankind and need to be
stopped before more harm to our small planet is permanent.
And ocean exploration will be an adventure. As Jacque Coustau observed:
"From birth man carries the weight of gravity on his shoulders. He is bolted to the Earth. But man has only to sink
beneath the surface and he is free. Buoyed by water, he can fly in any direction---up, down, sideways---by merely
flipping his hand. Under water, man becomes an archangel." 7
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Email conversation with Dr. Marcia McNutt January 29, 2003
2. President Clinton memo at:http://usinfo.state.gov/topical/global/environ/latest/00061301.htm
3. These facts come from the Smithsonian Institution's Ocean Planet exhibition and from the book Ocean Planet: Writings and Images of the
Sea, by Peter Benchley and Judith Gradwohl (published by Harry N. Abrams Inc., 100 5th Ave., New York, N.Y. 10011) Online at: http:
//seawifs.gsfc.nasa.gov/OCEAN_PLANET/HTML/ocean_planet_book_threats.html see also an excellent website on the efforts to protect our
Ocean fisheries www.savethefish. org/about_ocean_fisheries_overfishing.htm
4. Ibid and see Related links on research and exploration:
EDUCATION
American Association for the Advancement of Science www.aaas.org/education/
National Association for Research in Science Teaching www.educ.sfu.ca/narstsite/
National Marine Educators Association www.marine-ed.org
National Science Teachers Association www.nsta.org
North American Association for Environmental Education www.naaee.org/
RESEARCH
American Geophysical Union www.agu.org
American Society of Limnology and Oceanography http://aslo.org
Estuarine Research Federation http://erf.org
Marine Technology Society www.mtsociety.org
National Academy of Sciences www.nas.edu
National Association of Marine Laboratories www.mbl.edu/labs/NAML
Ocean Drilling Program www.oceandrilling.org
Oceanic Engineering Society http://ewh.ieee.org/soc/oes/oes.html
The Oceanography Society www.tos.org
University Corporation for Atmospheric Research www.windows.ucar.edu/
5. Ocean 98 facts and statistics were on line at:www.ocean98.org/ocean98.html. However that web site is no longer active. See Martian
Peace, Why We Must Explore the Oceans and Space,By Danny Quintana, Beckham Publications, (2003)
6. Ibid
7. Jacque Coustau quote on line at: www.sanddollarsports.com/jac.html
- The sperm whale is the largest predator that has ever lived.
OCEAN WATERS
Acoustics: Sound travels five times faster in water than in air--In 1960, scientists set off depth charges off the coast of Australia. About 2-1/2
hours later it was heard under the water in Bermuda.Carolus effect - The rotation of the earth causes water to circle away from the equator. It
creates the major currents.
Currents: The Kuroshio Current, off the shores of Japan, is the largest current. It can travel between 25 and 75 miles a day, 1 - 3 miles per
hour, and extends some 3300 feet deep. The Gulf Stream is close to this current's speed.- The Gulf Stream is a well known stream of warm
water in the Atlantic Ocean. At a speed of 60 miles per day, the Gulf stream moves a 100 times as much water as all the rivers on earth.
Because the Gulf Stream is part of a larger current system, it is difficult to set boundaries of start and finish. Generally, the northeasterly flow
can be charted from the Straits of Florida, at a speed of 3 - 4 knots with a rate of 26 million cubic meters per second, increasing past the
Chesapeake Bay to a rate of 75 - 90 million cubic meters per second due to addition of waters from the Sargasso Sea, up to the Grand Banks
of Newfoundland where the rate drops to 40 million cubic meters per second.
Foam: Sea foam is made of air bubbles separated by a film of liquid. Air bubbles in fresh water unite, while air bubbles in salt water bounce
off of each other. When these air bubbles rise to the surface in the ocean, they burst and release salt spray into the air. It is believed that
most of the airborne salt comes from the bursting of bubbles.
Light: Blue is the longest wavelength of the colors of the spectrum. Since it is the last absorbed by the ocean, it is the most dominant color
reflected. When descending into the sea, the colors of the spectrum begin to be filtered out. The first color to disappear is red.
Ocean Depth: The average depth of the ocean is 3795 m. (The average height of the land is 840m). The Marianas Trench in the Pacific
Ocean is, with a depth of 11.7 km, the deepest spot on earth and deeper than the highest mountain is tall. At the deepest point in the ocean,
the pressure is more than 8 tons per square inch
- The Caribbean Sea is the deepest at 8,448 feet. Ocean productivity - The productivity for a given area of a natural shallow estuary is similar
to that of most productive land crops. Estuaries, sugarcane and sorghum all produce between 500 and 1250
grams of Carbon per square meter per year.
- The productivity for a given area of the open ocean is similar to that of deserts and grasslands on land, between 40 and 80 grams of
Carbon per square meter per year.
- A given area in an ocean upwelling zone or deep estuary is as productive as the same area in rain forests, moist crops and intensive
agriculture. They all produce between 150 and 500 grams of Carbon per square meter per year.
Rising Sea Level: The sea level has risen with an average of 4-10 inches (10 to 25 cm) over the past 100 years and scientists expect this
rate to increase. Sea levels will continue rising even if the climate has stabilized, because the ocean reacts slowly to changes.
- 10,000 years ago the ocean level was about 330 ft (110 mtr) lower than it is now.
- If all the world's ice melted, the oceans would rise 200 ft (66 mtr). Tides - The highest tides in the world are found in the Bay of Fundy, Nova
Scotia, Canada. At times during the year the difference between high and low tide may be as high as 53 feet, the equivalent of a three-story
building.
- Each year there are 26 spring tides: 13 at full moon and 13 when the moon is none. Volcanic Activity - 90% of all volcanic activity on Earth
occurs in the ocean. The largest known concentration of active volcanoes (approximately 1,133) on the sea floor is located in the South
PACIFIC OCEAN:
Water Masses: Over 70% of the earth's surface is covered with water. This is approximately 362,000,000 square kilometers. The oceans
contain 97% of all the water on earth, which is about 1,300,000,000 km3 or 328,000,000 miles 3. The amount of water on earth has never
changed andwill never change.
- The Pacific Ocean holds more than half the seawater on Earth - almost as much as the Atlantic and Indian Oceans combined.
- The South China Sea, located between the coasts of China and Philippines, is the largest sea on Earth. It has an area of 1,148,500 square
miles.
Salinity: Some scientists estimate that the oceans contain as much as 50 quadrillion tons (50 million billion tons=50,000,000,000,000,000) of
dissolved solids. If the salt in the ocean could be removed and spread evenly over the Earth’s land surface it would form a layer more than
500 feet (166 m) thick, about the height of a 40-story office building.
- The ocean's principal dissolved solids are sodium salts (sodium chloride or common salt), calcium salts (calcium carbonate or lime, and
calcium sulfate), potassium salts (potassium sulfate), and magnesium salts (magnesium chloride, magnesium sulfate, and magnesium
bromide).
- Atlantic sea water is heavier than Pacific sea water due to its higher salt content.
- The freezing point of sea water depends on its salt content. Typical ocean water has about 35 grams of salt per liter and freezes at -19
degrees C.
Density - The density of ocean water varies. It becomes more dense as it becomes colder, right down to its freezing point of -1.9 degrees C.
(This is unlike fresh water, which is most dense at 4 degrees C, well above its freezing point). Water temperature - Under the enormous
pressures of the deep ocean, sea water can reach very high temperatures without boiling. A water temperature of 400 degrees C has been
measured at one hydrothermal vent.
- The average temperature of all ocean water is about 3.5° C.
- Almost all of the deep ocean temperatures are only a little warmer than freezing (39°F). Waves - Waves are primarily created by the friction
between water and wind. They go forward without replacing any water. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and tides also cause waves.
- Ordinary ocean waves get their energy from the wind. Higher waves need more energy. 'Sea state' (the typical height of wind waves) is
determined by the wind speed, the lenght of time the wind has been blowing steadily (the 'duration), and the distance over the water that the
wind blows in a single direction (the 'fetch').
- Wind-generated ocean wavescontinue to travel after the wind stops. Longer waves travel faster than shorter ones, and go farther before
friction causes them to disappear. Groups of waves froM sortm in the Pacific near Antarctica have been detected in Hawaii and Alaska, more
than 10,000 km away.
- A Tsunami, can move as fast as 500 miles per hour. The largest recorded tsunami measured 210 feet above sea level, which is about 18
stories high. It reached Siberia's Kamchatka Peninsula in 1737.
- Seiche is a wave formed by the rocking of water in an enclosed water area such as a harbor or bay.
- Even underwater waves exist: between layers of water of different denseties.
- Kinetic energy, the energy of motion, in waves is tremendous. An average 4-foot, 10-second wave striking a coast puts out more than
35,000 horsepower per mile of coast. If this seems confusing, another way to determine how much power is contained in a wave can be best
visualized by looking at the damage it does when it hits the coast. For example, on the coast of Scotland a block of cemented stone weighing
1,350 tons was broken lose. Later, the replacement pier, weighing 2,600, tons was carried away by waves. Off the coast of Oregon, the roof
of a lighthouse 91 feet above water was damaged by a 135 pound rock that was carried by the high waves. Waterless Oceans The oceans
will completely disappear in about one billion years due to increased temperatures from a maturing sun. The problems begin in half that time
because of falling levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. As time progresses, the sun, like all main sequence stars, is getting brighter
and that affects the climate of our planet. Eventually temperatures will become high enough so that the oceans evaporate. At 140 degrees
Fahrenheit, water becomes a major constituent of the atmosphere. Much of this water migrates to the stratosphere where it is lost to the
vacuum. Eventually, the oceans will evaporate into space.
POLAR REGIONS
- Antarctica has as much ice as the Atlantic Ocean has water.
- 10% of the earth's surface is covered with ice.
- The Arctic Ocean is the smallest ocean, holding only one percent of the Earth's seawater. This is still more than 25 times as much water as
all rivers and fresh water lakes.
- The average thickness of the Arctic ice sheet is about 9 to 10 feet, although there are some areas as thick as 65 feet.
- In the unlikely event that all the polar ice were to melt, the sea level all over the world would rise 500 to 600 feet. As a result, 85 to 90% of
the Earth's surface would be covered with water as compared to the current 71%. The U.S. would be split by the Mississippi Sea, which would
connect the Great Lakes with the Gulf of Mexico.
- The Arctic produces 10,000 to 50,000 icebergs annually. The amount produced in the Antarctic regions is inestimable. Icebergs normally
have a four-year life-span; they begin entering shipping lanes after about three years.
POLLUTION
Pollutants: Sewage, pulpmill wastes, fertilizers, soaps, detergents, radioactive wastes, synthetic fibers, plastics, oils, tars, greases, and
insecticides are all pollutants man has placed in our Earth's oceans. Hot and cold water from factories and silt from dredging can also be
considered pollutants because they are abnormal to the surrounding water conditions.
Air Pollution: Air pollution is responsible for 33% of the toxic contaminants that end up in oceans and coastal waters. About 44% of the toxic
contaminants come from rivers and streams. Animal Deaths - In one year, over a 100 million sharks are killed, many solely for their fins. In one
year one million seabirds and 100,000 marine mammals and sea turtles suffer cruel deaths from entanglement or suffocation in plastics.
Annually, about 600 miles of commercial fishing nets break loose, float freely, become a curtain of death.
Carbon Dioxyde Absorbtion: Oceans absorb between 30% and 50% of the carbon dioxide produced by burning fossil fuel. Carbon dioxide
is transported downwards by plankton. Any change in the temperature of the ocean water, influences the ability of plankton to take up carbon
dioxide. This has consequences for the ecosystem, because plankton form the base of the food web. Reefs - Over 60% of the world's coral
reefs are threatened as a result of pollution, sedimentation and bleaching due to rising water temperatures caused by global warming. Global
Coral Monitoring Network (GCRMN) states that currently 27% of all coral reef worldwide has disappeared and around 2050 only 30% will be
left. Rubbish/Contamination- In one year, three times as much rubbish is dumped into the world's oceans as the weight of fish caught.
- A single quart of motor oil can contaminate up to 2 million gallons of drinking water.
Marine Salvage: In 1998, marine salvors recovered 986,116 tonnes of oil, 84,994 tonnes of hazardous chemicals, and 47,385 tonnes of
other pollutants. In the five year period from 1994-98, marine salvors recovered 6,956,922 tonnes of oil, 428,728 tonnes of hazardous
chemicals and 206,130 of other pollutants.
Oil spills: The Exxon Valdez ran aground off the coast of Alaska. 42,000 tons of oil were spilled. It was the worst tanker spill in U.S. history. In
terms of all time oil spills, it doesn't even rank among the top 20.
- Only about one tenth of one percent of oil shipped each year is spilled at sea. That amounts to 2,200,000 tons.
RESOURCES, MINERALS
Gold: If all the gold suspended in the world's seawater were mined, each person on Earth could have about 9 pounds of gold.
Oil: Oil is one of the ocean's greatest resources. nearly one-third of the world's oil comes from offshore fields in our oceans. Areas most
popular for oil drilling are the Arabian Gulf, the North Sea, and the Gulf of Mexico. Oil was also borne from the sea. Millions of years ago,
countless marine microsciopic plants (phytoplankton) and animals (zooplankton) lived in the ancient seas as they do today. As they died,
the skeletal remains of these tiny organisms settled to the sea floor, mixed with mud and silt, and over millions of years, formed organic-rich
sedimentary layers. Other sediments continued to be deposited and further buried the oganic-rich sediment layer to depths of thousands of
feet, compressing the layers into a rock that would become the source for oil. Over the years, as the depth of the burial increased, pressure
increased, along with the temperature. Under such conditions, and over long periods of time, the original skeletal remains of phytoplankton
and zooplankton changed, breaking down into simpler substances called hydrocarbons--compounds of hydrogen and carbon. This process
still continues, although it will be millions of years before the next batch of oil is done cooking.
TERRITORIAL WATERS, EEZ
EEZ: The EEZ refers to the coastal waters that lie adjacent to the coast and extend 200 nautical miles offshore. Marine resources within the
EEZ is governed by the adjacent country.
The 10 Largest Territorial Powers (in million sq kms)
Country Land Area Sea Claims Total Area
1. Australia 7,700,000 28,500,000 36,200,000
2. Russia 17,100,000 21,500,000 38,600,000
3. USA 9,400,000 20,000,000 29,400,000
4. Canada 9,900,000 12,400,000 22,300,000
5. China 9,600,000 11,400,000 21,000,000
6. Brazil 8,500,000 11,000,000 19,500,000
7. France 500,000 6,000,000 6,500,000
8. Indonesia 1,900,000 6,000,000 7,900,000
9. India 3,200,000 5,700,000 8,900,000
10. New Zealand 300,000 5,500,000 5,800,000
WATER (hydrogen)
Hydrogen: About 97% of the atoms in our universe are hydrogen: more than 50% of the atoms in our environment (the soil beneath our feet,
the atmosphere, the oceans) are hydrogen, most of it combined with oxygen as water. Desalination - Arabian Gulf reverse osmosis plants
treat 500,000,000 gallons of sea water to obtain 100,000,000 gallons of fresh water. Daily over 500,000,000 gallons of Seawater must be
heated to extremely high temperatures. Mixed with toxic chemicals the Seawater is injected under high pressure through a series of
membrane filters. Only 100,000,000 gallons of fresh water is generated. The 5:1 ratio of this highly inefficient process means 400,000,000
gallons of untreated water are returned to the sea each day. The higher temperature of the discharged water causes environmental
problems. Worse, the super heated brine discharge has significantly higher levels of total dissolved solids, and toxic chemicals are mixed in
with it. This pollution is usually discharged back into the sea. 6
Clearly we have an immense job in protecting the oceans in this century for future generations. However, our navy, which is the finest in
history is up for this task. We are the only nation with the ability to bring law to the oceans of the entire planet. It also gives our navy a mission
of global scope and a moral certainty which people will be hard pressed to object. Each year over one million sea birds and over 100,000
marine mammals and sea turtles suffer cruel deaths from entanglement on fish nets or suffocation in plastics.
The problem with our navy presently is the mission of protecting America from communism has been achieved. Al Qaeda does not pose a
naval threat to the "infidels". Thus a new and more important mission of global scope is required. And that mission is to protect the oceans for
all of mankind. We are the only nation that has the ability to enforce existing international agreements. Our navy can defeat all of the navies
in the world combined in combat. But we are not fighting the entire world. Pollution and polluters are enemies of all mankind and need to be
stopped before more harm to our small planet is permanent.
And ocean exploration will be an adventure. As Jacque Coustau observed:
"From birth man carries the weight of gravity on his shoulders. He is bolted to the Earth. But man has only to sink
beneath the surface and he is free. Buoyed by water, he can fly in any direction---up, down, sideways---by merely
flipping his hand. Under water, man becomes an archangel." 7
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1. Email conversation with Dr. Marcia McNutt January 29, 2003
2. President Clinton memo at:http://usinfo.state.gov/topical/global/environ/latest/00061301.htm
3. These facts come from the Smithsonian Institution's Ocean Planet exhibition and from the book Ocean Planet: Writings and Images of the
Sea, by Peter Benchley and Judith Gradwohl (published by Harry N. Abrams Inc., 100 5th Ave., New York, N.Y. 10011) Online at: http:
//seawifs.gsfc.nasa.gov/OCEAN_PLANET/HTML/ocean_planet_book_threats.html see also an excellent website on the efforts to protect our
Ocean fisheries www.savethefish. org/about_ocean_fisheries_overfishing.htm
4. Ibid and see Related links on research and exploration:
EDUCATION
American Association for the Advancement of Science www.aaas.org/education/
National Association for Research in Science Teaching www.educ.sfu.ca/narstsite/
National Marine Educators Association www.marine-ed.org
National Science Teachers Association www.nsta.org
North American Association for Environmental Education www.naaee.org/
RESEARCH
American Geophysical Union www.agu.org
American Society of Limnology and Oceanography http://aslo.org
Estuarine Research Federation http://erf.org
Marine Technology Society www.mtsociety.org
National Academy of Sciences www.nas.edu
National Association of Marine Laboratories www.mbl.edu/labs/NAML
Ocean Drilling Program www.oceandrilling.org
Oceanic Engineering Society http://ewh.ieee.org/soc/oes/oes.html
The Oceanography Society www.tos.org
University Corporation for Atmospheric Research www.windows.ucar.edu/
5. Ocean 98 facts and statistics were on line at:www.ocean98.org/ocean98.html. However that web site is no longer active. See Martian
Peace, Why We Must Explore the Oceans and Space,By Danny Quintana, Beckham Publications, (2003)
6. Ibid
7. Jacque Coustau quote on line at: www.sanddollarsports.com/jac.html
| "We must continue as a nation to set out for new frontiers,whether under the sea or into the heavens. We must continue to try to conquer the seemingly impossible -- to discover theunimaginable, to find out more about what's out there, andin the process, about ourselves and what's here." President Bill Clinton, 6/12/2000 |