| Chapter Seventeen of Pax Americana: The Military Industrial Complex and the War On Terror by Danny Quintana |
| When Exploration Was Exciting |
Despite the impressive five hundred year conquest of all land areas, the oceans have been overlooked. Why should we explore the oceans?
Oceanographer Dr. Marcia K. McNutt in her testimony to Congress has a reasonable answer:
Oceanographer Dr. Marcia K. McNutt in her testimony to Congress has a reasonable answer:
In the last five hundred years we have explored all of the land areas on our small planet. When this global exploration started in the 15th
century, the planet had less then one billion people. As most of you know, three hundred years later, by 1800 the planet’s population had
increased to one billion. From 1800 to 1930 our population doubled to slightly over two billion. And in the last 100 years, our population
explosion has added another four billion people to a very small planet. 1
century, the planet had less then one billion people. As most of you know, three hundred years later, by 1800 the planet’s population had
increased to one billion. From 1800 to 1930 our population doubled to slightly over two billion. And in the last 100 years, our population
explosion has added another four billion people to a very small planet. 1
In many parts of the world the quality of life has dramatically decreased because the human population has outpaced the ability of resources
to support it. Our land resources have been stretched to the breaking point. We either need to reduce the world’s population by four billion
people or we need to find new places to colonize and new resources to harness. Another alternative is to have a holocaust.
to support it. Our land resources have been stretched to the breaking point. We either need to reduce the world’s population by four billion
people or we need to find new places to colonize and new resources to harness. Another alternative is to have a holocaust.
The use of public funds for exploration is always controversial. The reason for the controversy is there is not an immediate return on
investment from exploration to increase in the public treasury. Politicians, are first rate second rate men. Unable to succeed in other
endeavors, they seek the purple cloak to make up for a deficiency in their lives. Cowards that they are, politicians do what is the most simple
and expedient. The same course is “safe”. Spending money on defense is a great way to keep known constituents happy, campaign
contributions flowing and avoid taking a risk on something innovative. Occasionally there will be a statesman who has the foresight to realize
the gains that will be made are going to be in the far distant future.
The man chiefly responsible for Portugal's age of exploration and what eventually started European expansion into other parts of our small
planet was Prince Henry, the third son of King J"ao I (John) and his English wife, Queen Philippa of Lancaster. 2 Prince Henry was born in
1394. In 1419, his father made him governor of Portugal's southernmost coasts. Under Henry’s leadership, the Portuguese sent numerous
expeditions down the west coast of Africa to outflank the Muslim hold on trade routes and to establish colonies. 3
investment from exploration to increase in the public treasury. Politicians, are first rate second rate men. Unable to succeed in other
endeavors, they seek the purple cloak to make up for a deficiency in their lives. Cowards that they are, politicians do what is the most simple
and expedient. The same course is “safe”. Spending money on defense is a great way to keep known constituents happy, campaign
contributions flowing and avoid taking a risk on something innovative. Occasionally there will be a statesman who has the foresight to realize
the gains that will be made are going to be in the far distant future.
The man chiefly responsible for Portugal's age of exploration and what eventually started European expansion into other parts of our small
planet was Prince Henry, the third son of King J"ao I (John) and his English wife, Queen Philippa of Lancaster. 2 Prince Henry was born in
1394. In 1419, his father made him governor of Portugal's southernmost coasts. Under Henry’s leadership, the Portuguese sent numerous
expeditions down the west coast of Africa to outflank the Muslim hold on trade routes and to establish colonies. 3
"It is very simple. The ocean is essential to life on Earth. The ocean is Earth’s largest living
space and contains most of its biomass. Eighty percent of all known phyla are found only in the
ocean, and most photosynthesis occurs there. The ocean moderates our climate to keep Earth
habitable, and it processes our wastes. The ocean provides an inexpensive source of protein
to feed the global population. Yet 95% of the ocean is unknown and unexplored. How could that
have happened? During the great era of exploration from the 15th through the 18th centuries,
the target was unknown lands: the New World,the Dark Continent, Terra Incognita. Many of the
explorers of that era were indeed superb mariners - Columbus, Magellan, Drake, Cook – but
the ocean itself was not the target of their journeys. It was merely a barrier that needed to be
crossed in order to claim new lands and discover new riches. The technology did not even exist
at that time to explore the ocean itself.
"By the time we developed the platforms and instruments that could explore the ocean and its
depths, exploration had gone out of favor as most of the land surface had already been
catalogued, and the vast resources of the oceans were unappreciated. To be sure, much has
been learned about the oceans through research programs supported by Federal agencies,
primarily NSF, the Navy, and NOAA. But research is distinct from exploration. Exploration leads
to questions. Research finds answers.
"Every day Congress and other legislative bodies are asked to make policy decisions
concerning the oceans, based on the best scientific answers to those posed questions. But
what if we don’t know enough to ask the right questions? For example, some are now proposing
direct sequestration of carbon dioxide in the ocean, below 3 km depth, as a way to circumvent
the atmospheric release that leads to global warming. But how can we assess the biological
impact of ocean sequestration when we don’t know all of the creatures that live in those
regions, much less the role they play in the overall health of the ocean ecosystem?
"As another example, my institution’s ocean observatories documented a 25% drop in ocean
productivity in Monterey Bay in the decade of the 1990’s caused by a 1 degree Fahrenheit rise
in ocean surface temperature. This extreme effect was not predicted by the sophisticated
computer models because we have not explored the ocean sufficiently in the time domain to
ask the right questions of the models. In order to know the right questions to even ask, the U.S.
needs a program in ocean exploration. 1
space and contains most of its biomass. Eighty percent of all known phyla are found only in the
ocean, and most photosynthesis occurs there. The ocean moderates our climate to keep Earth
habitable, and it processes our wastes. The ocean provides an inexpensive source of protein
to feed the global population. Yet 95% of the ocean is unknown and unexplored. How could that
have happened? During the great era of exploration from the 15th through the 18th centuries,
the target was unknown lands: the New World,the Dark Continent, Terra Incognita. Many of the
explorers of that era were indeed superb mariners - Columbus, Magellan, Drake, Cook – but
the ocean itself was not the target of their journeys. It was merely a barrier that needed to be
crossed in order to claim new lands and discover new riches. The technology did not even exist
at that time to explore the ocean itself.
"By the time we developed the platforms and instruments that could explore the ocean and its
depths, exploration had gone out of favor as most of the land surface had already been
catalogued, and the vast resources of the oceans were unappreciated. To be sure, much has
been learned about the oceans through research programs supported by Federal agencies,
primarily NSF, the Navy, and NOAA. But research is distinct from exploration. Exploration leads
to questions. Research finds answers.
"Every day Congress and other legislative bodies are asked to make policy decisions
concerning the oceans, based on the best scientific answers to those posed questions. But
what if we don’t know enough to ask the right questions? For example, some are now proposing
direct sequestration of carbon dioxide in the ocean, below 3 km depth, as a way to circumvent
the atmospheric release that leads to global warming. But how can we assess the biological
impact of ocean sequestration when we don’t know all of the creatures that live in those
regions, much less the role they play in the overall health of the ocean ecosystem?
"As another example, my institution’s ocean observatories documented a 25% drop in ocean
productivity in Monterey Bay in the decade of the 1990’s caused by a 1 degree Fahrenheit rise
in ocean surface temperature. This extreme effect was not predicted by the sophisticated
computer models because we have not explored the ocean sufficiently in the time domain to
ask the right questions of the models. In order to know the right questions to even ask, the U.S.
needs a program in ocean exploration. 1
Superstitions being what they were in this time, these expeditions moved slowly due to the mariners' belief that waters at the equator were at
the boiling point, that human skin turned black, and that sea monsters would engulf ships. 4 The benefits to Portugal came slowly. It wasn't
until 27 years after Henry's death that Bartolomeu Dias braved these "dangers" and rounded the Cape of Good Hope in [1487]. 5
What Henry is most famous for is establishing a naval observatory for the teaching of navigation, astronomy, and cartography about [1450].6
Prince Henry never lived to see the tremendous benefits to Portugal and Europe from his school of navigation and push for exploration of a
route to India and China. This long term policy was a very smart political move that gave the tiny country of Portugal an upper hand in the
race for the trade routes to Asia and in becoming a global maritime power.
the boiling point, that human skin turned black, and that sea monsters would engulf ships. 4 The benefits to Portugal came slowly. It wasn't
until 27 years after Henry's death that Bartolomeu Dias braved these "dangers" and rounded the Cape of Good Hope in [1487]. 5
What Henry is most famous for is establishing a naval observatory for the teaching of navigation, astronomy, and cartography about [1450].6
Prince Henry never lived to see the tremendous benefits to Portugal and Europe from his school of navigation and push for exploration of a
route to India and China. This long term policy was a very smart political move that gave the tiny country of Portugal an upper hand in the
race for the trade routes to Asia and in becoming a global maritime power.
This push for exploration also resulted in the
development of numerous new types of ships
and technology for this small nation. Portugal
made the push around Africa and into India
and Asia with ships that continued to evolve
and technology that improved with every
voyage. Portuguese explorer Vasco De
Gama and others who followed him opened
India and Asia to trade about 40 years after
Prince Henry died. The policy was successful.
Sometimes luck plays a large role in world
events. Columbus first went to Portugal and
lived there for several years trying to
convince the king to commission a voyage
westward to the lucrative trade with Asia and
India. When Columbus finally got his
audience with King John II the science
advisors to the king recommended against
the voyage. They believed his math was
wrong and it was much farther then his
estimates. History proved the Portuguese
were correct. 7
development of numerous new types of ships
and technology for this small nation. Portugal
made the push around Africa and into India
and Asia with ships that continued to evolve
and technology that improved with every
voyage. Portuguese explorer Vasco De
Gama and others who followed him opened
India and Asia to trade about 40 years after
Prince Henry died. The policy was successful.
Sometimes luck plays a large role in world
events. Columbus first went to Portugal and
lived there for several years trying to
convince the king to commission a voyage
westward to the lucrative trade with Asia and
India. When Columbus finally got his
audience with King John II the science
advisors to the king recommended against
the voyage. They believed his math was
wrong and it was much farther then his
estimates. History proved the Portuguese
were correct. 7
Political decisions become mistakes after time has tested the consequences. Spain expelled their fine Jewish and Muslim scholars with their
intolerant Spanish Inquisition and soon squandered most of their immense wealth on their Spanish Armada. They failed to build a strong
manufacturing base and imported finished products from other parts of Europe. This stimulated the economy of other countries but did not
improve Spain’s economic strength. The circulation of all of this gold and silver coins fueled commerce that had stalled since the fall of
imperial Rome.
The exploration and acquisition of gold, silver and slaves did not mean Spain used their resources for long-term economic development. As
individuals or as nations, how we use our wealth, whether stolen, or earned will ultimately determine our lot in life. Nor do we always
understand the significance of our discoveries.
intolerant Spanish Inquisition and soon squandered most of their immense wealth on their Spanish Armada. They failed to build a strong
manufacturing base and imported finished products from other parts of Europe. This stimulated the economy of other countries but did not
improve Spain’s economic strength. The circulation of all of this gold and silver coins fueled commerce that had stalled since the fall of
imperial Rome.
The exploration and acquisition of gold, silver and slaves did not mean Spain used their resources for long-term economic development. As
individuals or as nations, how we use our wealth, whether stolen, or earned will ultimately determine our lot in life. Nor do we always
understand the significance of our discoveries.
 | |  | |  |
Having failed in Portugal, the Genoa sailor took his vision of a western voyage to India to the Spaniards. Finally in 1492 Columbus sailed on
three tiny ships into the unknown. Spain did not get an immediate benefit. It was not until 1521 and Cortez's conquest of the Aztecs, long after
Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand had funded these expeditions that Spain acquired her immense wealth from the empires in Central and
South America. Those of us who are older realize that 28 years is not a long time to wait.
fresh currency and fueled the start of start of the industrial revolution. 8 More by historical accident then by design did Europe achieve global
dominance from their explorations and subsequent colonization of lands already occupied by various indigenous peoples. But for a change in
policy China would have ruled the world.
three tiny ships into the unknown. Spain did not get an immediate benefit. It was not until 1521 and Cortez's conquest of the Aztecs, long after
Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand had funded these expeditions that Spain acquired her immense wealth from the empires in Central and
South America. Those of us who are older realize that 28 years is not a long time to wait.
fresh currency and fueled the start of start of the industrial revolution. 8 More by historical accident then by design did Europe achieve global
dominance from their explorations and subsequent colonization of lands already occupied by various indigenous peoples. But for a change in
policy China would have ruled the world.
From 1405 to 1433, Chinese Admiral Cheng Ho led an expedition of
approximately 30,000 men and some of the largest wooden ships ever built
on several voyages exploring the Pacific Rim, India and even into Africa in
his service of Emperor Chu Ti. A change in leadership in China resulted in
approximately 30,000 men and some of the largest wooden ships ever built
on several voyages exploring the Pacific Rim, India and even into Africa in
his service of Emperor Chu Ti. A change in leadership in China resulted in
Maintaining this fleet was very expensive given the other
Chinese projects that were taking place during this same time
period. The new administration decided benefits were too far
removed. That and infighting within the imperial court cancelled
the program. The inability to see the benefits of trade and
colonies in other parts of the world was not in the vision of
China’s future when the this very successful exploration
program was suddenly cancelled. 10 The Chinese government
did not believe there was any reason for their subjects to travel
abroad as the rest of the world was uncivilized. After canceling
the program they banned all travel abroad and the logs of the
great explorer were destroyed. Admiral Ho was the greatest
Muslim explorer in history.
Chinese projects that were taking place during this same time
period. The new administration decided benefits were too far
removed. That and infighting within the imperial court cancelled
the program. The inability to see the benefits of trade and
colonies in other parts of the world was not in the vision of
China’s future when the this very successful exploration
program was suddenly cancelled. 10 The Chinese government
did not believe there was any reason for their subjects to travel
abroad as the rest of the world was uncivilized. After canceling
the program they banned all travel abroad and the logs of the
great explorer were destroyed. Admiral Ho was the greatest
Muslim explorer in history.
Like the burning of the library at Alexandria and the subsequent loss of knowledge, some of the books of the Aztecs and Incas were burned
as “works of the devil”. Superstition prevailed over rational scientific inquiry. With thousands of species yet to be discovered we can only hope
religious extremists will not prevent the knowledge from going forward. The oceans and the inner solar system will be explored either by other
countries and private foundations and organizations with or without the United States.
--------------------------------------------
Notes:
1. Dr. Marcia K. McNutt, President and CEO, Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute, Moss Landing, CA 95039 July 21, 2001 testimony
before the Resources Subcommittee on Fisheries Conservation at:www.house.gov/science/ets/jul12/mcnutt.htm
2. The Mariners' Museum Age of Exploration On-line Curriculum Guide, Prince Henry the Navigator at:
www.mariner.org/age/princehenry.html
3-6. Ibid.
7. The Portuguese had already invested a great deal in trying to find a route to India and Asia around Africa. A new expensive journey west
with unknown results was stretching the limits and patience of the Portuguese crown. It is also possible Portugal did not want a conflict with
Spain. Numerous sites on the internet have extensive information on Columbus and his difficulties with the Portuguese crown. A very good
book on the Spanish exploration of the new world is, "RIVERS OF GOLD, The Rise of the Spanish Empire, From Columbus to Magellan". By
Hugh Thomas. Illustrated. 696 pp. Random House. $35. A New York Times review by Paul Kennedy, July 25, 2004
"Conquerors and Missionaries" is available online at:
http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C06E5D7173AF936A15754C0A9629C8B63
8. See generally Jack Weatherford’s “Indian Givers”
9. See "The Great Chinese Mariner Zheng He [Cheng Ho]" online at:www.chinapage .com/zhenghe.html
10. See "The Admiral Of the Western Seas – Cheng Ho (Zheng He)" online at
http://planet.time.net.my/CentralMarket/melaka101/chengho.htm
as “works of the devil”. Superstition prevailed over rational scientific inquiry. With thousands of species yet to be discovered we can only hope
religious extremists will not prevent the knowledge from going forward. The oceans and the inner solar system will be explored either by other
countries and private foundations and organizations with or without the United States.
--------------------------------------------
Notes:
1. Dr. Marcia K. McNutt, President and CEO, Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute, Moss Landing, CA 95039 July 21, 2001 testimony
before the Resources Subcommittee on Fisheries Conservation at:www.house.gov/science/ets/jul12/mcnutt.htm
2. The Mariners' Museum Age of Exploration On-line Curriculum Guide, Prince Henry the Navigator at:
www.mariner.org/age/princehenry.html
3-6. Ibid.
7. The Portuguese had already invested a great deal in trying to find a route to India and Asia around Africa. A new expensive journey west
with unknown results was stretching the limits and patience of the Portuguese crown. It is also possible Portugal did not want a conflict with
Spain. Numerous sites on the internet have extensive information on Columbus and his difficulties with the Portuguese crown. A very good
book on the Spanish exploration of the new world is, "RIVERS OF GOLD, The Rise of the Spanish Empire, From Columbus to Magellan". By
Hugh Thomas. Illustrated. 696 pp. Random House. $35. A New York Times review by Paul Kennedy, July 25, 2004
"Conquerors and Missionaries" is available online at:
http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C06E5D7173AF936A15754C0A9629C8B63
8. See generally Jack Weatherford’s “Indian Givers”
9. See "The Great Chinese Mariner Zheng He [Cheng Ho]" online at:www.chinapage .com/zhenghe.html
10. See "The Admiral Of the Western Seas – Cheng Ho (Zheng He)" online at
http://planet.time.net.my/CentralMarket/melaka101/chengho.htm
| "The human race is likely to be wiped out by a doomsday virus . . .unless we set up colonies in space. Although Sept. more worried about biology. Nuclear weapons need large facilities, but genetic engineering can be done in a small lab. The danger is that, either by accident or design, we create a virus that destroys us. I don't think the human race will survive unless wespread into space. There are too many accidents that can befall life on a single planet." Professor Stephen Hawking, Lucasian Professor of Mathematics, University of Cambridge |